Marine Biology Career Advice

You asked us questions about marine biology careers, and our panel of experts answered them!

In April, I solicited your questions about careers in marine biology, and we received nearly 100 questions! In this post, I’ve answered as many of them as I can, along with a panel of experts. Some questions have been rephrased for clarity, and similar questions have been combined.

Meet the panel:

Allison Besch (AB): Allison Besch is the Director of the Career and Professional Development Center at the Nicholas School of the Environment at Duke University in Durham, North Carolina.  She primarily advises masters students in a wide range of environment-related fields and teaches core career skills in both on-campus and non-degree training courses.

Kasey Cantwell (KC): Kasey Cantwell has worked in the ocean science sector for 16 years, with 13 years in the federal government. She began her career conducting coral reef mapping and ecosystem monitoring before shifting her focus to the deep ocean. Since then, she has led multidisciplinary teams in planning and executing complex ocean exploration missions, building strategic partnerships to advance national and international exploration goals.

Heather Koldewey (HK): Heather is the Head of Ocean and FAIRER Conservation at the Zoological Society of London, UK. She leads the Bertarelli Foundation’s Indian Ocean Marine Science Programme, is Honorary Professor at the University of Exeter, UK, and a National Geographic Explorer. She works at the interface of marine science, conservation, management and policy across a range of organisations and geographies.

Catherine Macdonald (CM): Dr. Catherine Macdonald is the Director of the Shark Research and Conservation Program at the University of Miami’s Rosenstiel School of Marine, Atmospheric, and Earth Science and the co-founder and Director of Field School.

Erica Moulton (EM):  Erica Moulton is the Assistant Dean of Natural Sciences at St Petersburg College, Director of the Center for Open Exploration and founder & owner of PVC ROV.  Her work is focused on empowering students to explore marine science and ocean technology in accessible and engaging ways.

David Shiffman (DS): Dr. David Shiffman is an interdisciplinary marine conservation biologist. He works on endangered species conservation and sustainable fisheries management in Washington, DC, where he runs an ocean conservation research, policy, and communications consulting firm.

PART 1: What types of jobs exist in marine biology, and what are the differences between them?

What are some of the main types of jobs that exist in marine biology? Who would I be working for, and what would I be doing?

DS: There are a LOT of jobs in marine biology! Broadly speaking, many marine biologists are scientists who perform research on marine life or habitats, environmental non-profit employees who use that science to advocate for science-based policy change, government officials who implement policy changes related to ocean life, or aquarium husbandry or education staff. Whether you’re leading a lab or working as a field or lab tech depends on your credentials and experience. LEARN MORE in my SCUBA Diving Magazine article.

EM: The types of jobs are really diverse.  A great way to learn about job titles and expectations is to start searching job boards online.  Differences in the jobs?  Pay attention to the details in the descriptions.  Some might say 10 % field work and 90% lab, writing, office work or vice versa. If your intent is to work in the field more often than the lab, make notes about those career descriptions as you determine the educational path you want to take to achieve your career goals.

CM: To understand the jobs that are available and what the job market in marine science looks like, it’s very helpful to do some job searches for the kinds of jobs you think you want, so you have a realistic sense of what actually exists (and where the jobs that interest you are located, and what they pay!). One of the biggest bummers for me is having to tell a student that their dream job is truly just a dream–because it doesn’t actually exist.  

AB: This is a very broad question and can be approached in a variety of ways.  In general, university-level career advisors break it down by skills into these four main areas (I’ll give a sample job title for each one):

1. science and research (Fisheries Biologist)
2. conservation and policy (Coastal Zone Manager)
3. technical and field work (Marine GIS Analyst)
4. education, communication, and outreach (Aquarium Education Specialist)

People working in Marine biology can work in any of the four main employment sectors:

1. Public Sector – federal/state/local/international government
2. Non-Governmental organization (NGO) or non-profit organization
3. Private Sector – corporation or privately funded organization 
4. Consulting company – maintains clients and works on a contractual basis.  Clients may be companies, government agencies, universities, NGOs, etc.

HK: Marine biology is a big, diverse and wonderful discipline. Among other things, there are people who study single species or groups of species, the habitats they live in, the systems and processes that underpin them, the threats and solutions, or organising and managing elements of all of the above. That translates to jobs that are field-based (from ship to shore, underwater to completely dry), lab-based, aquarium-based, desk-based or a mix of these – but all of them will involve an element of administration and more mundane tasks. In addition to job searches, you can get a better idea by becoming a member of relevant organisations such as the Marine Biological Association, attending webinars or listening to podcasts involving marine biologists, and following them on social media. 

What do University professors do other than teach? What are the different types of universities in the USA (R1, PUI, etc).?

CM: At a research-focused University like mine, the main job of most professors is to write grants to fund research and to write scientific papers to share research. Of course we also have all kinds of other responsibilities, including administrative roles (everything from permits to paperwork to advising and sitting on committees) and teaching and mentoring. We also answer so many emails.

EM: Community college is a viable option if pursuing grant funded research isn’t your main priority.  Yes, there are often more commitments to teaching, but you can blend in your interest in a research project(s) and often have access to a grants team to assist in writing and reviewing your funding applications.  Bonus – you get to provide a research or field work opportunity to a student who may not otherwise attend a major university. 

AB: University professors often teach, mentor students, pursue their own grant-funded research, contribute to the administration of their program (department chair, committee members, etc.), create or contribute to university fundraising or outreach events and community events.  They may run clinics, initiatives, or programs related to their area of expertise. They may serve as experts in their field in a variety of outlets (source for news articles, expert witness, book author, panelist/public speaker, etc.) Here are some different ways people classify universities in the US (note these are coming from different types of classification systems – degrees, focus, size):

1.  Research Universities.  Universities in America often use the Carnegie Classification system  to describe their size, academic program structure, and research focus.  The highest level of research university is classified as “R1”, such as Duke University, where I work. 
2. Technical schools and Polytechnic Institutes.  Generally an emphasis on STEM fields (including marine biology) with a focus on research and technology.  
3. Liberal Arts Colleges. Focus on a broad curriculum of arts and sciences, undergraduate degree level, and small overall student population.  There can still be marine biology degree programs to pursue here.
4. Associate Colleges.  Their primary degree type is Associates degrees, such as community colleges.  They may offer technical programs related to marine biology such as aquaculture technology.
5. Baccalaureate.  These are primarily bachelor’s degrees (undergraduate programs) and can include but are not exclusive to institutions that have “College” in their name. They can also be referred to as a Primarily Undergraduate Institution (PUI).
6. Graduate Programs.  This includes Masters and Doctorate (PhD, etc.) degree options, which generally means students have already completed up to a Bachelor’s degree before applying to that program.  

HK: I’m based in the UK and university professors vary in their % time spent teaching and doing research. Some are full research roles with occasional teaching, or vice versa. All will mentor and supervise students, which often includes pastoral care in addition to the research itself. Those doing research may spend substantial time in the field or labs, others may be more tied to the university and so work with postdocs and students for data collection. Leading or contributing to papers and grants is another big element, as well as presenting research in workshops and conferences. University professors also spend more time now on science communications, being expert spokespeople or active on social media. There are broader roles they may take on at the university, building regional or international collaborations, developing thematic strategies, or establishing sustainability or equality initiatives.  

What’s the difference between ocean science and ocean conservation?

DS: Ocean science is generally asking questions like “where does the fish go, let’s study it” whereas ocean conservation is asking questions like “this fish is threatened, what are its threats and how can we remedy them?” It’s a matter of research vs. advocacy and policy work. There’s also a wrinkle in the form of “marine conservation biology,” which is doing research in support of policy change for endangered species. READ MORE in my Ocean Conservancy blog.

CM: I would just add the distinction that science-based advocacy isn’t possible without science, and plenty of science-based conservation successes wouldn’t be possible without advocacy. In some cases the roles of conservationists and scientists can look extremely similar; but of course there are plenty of forms of advocacy that aren’t focused on science. 

AB: Ocean science looks to address the “what” question.  Ocean scientists seek to understand and advance the body of knowledge about the ocean and its inhabitants and related processes.  And ocean conservation focuses more on the “so what” or “so what next” question.  The work or research can be more goal-oriented in terms of protecting ocean resources from harm or loss.  It is important to remember that the two are not mutually exclusive!  However, the career or job paths that come out of ocean science can look vastly different from ocean conservation career paths, in terms of “what you do all day” and “what tools you need to have to do the job.”

HK: I work for a science-based conservation organisation and we have people working across the science to conservation spectrum. Science should provide the facts and evidence that inform the conservation of a species or habitat and how to save it. The conservationists are the practitioners that put that into action, e.g. developing species survival plans, or implementing marine protected areas. They can be the same people! One difference might be the metrics associated with your job performance, which are more likely to be associated with publications and grants for science, and more linked to conservation project deliverables for conservation.  

How much money do marine biologists make? How much do entry-level jobs pay?

DS: It varies widely from position to position, but generally speaking you will be making a lot less money than if you were a doctor or lawyer or investment banker. Entry-level positions are often minimum wage or slightly higher. Senior-level positions are often in the low six figures.

EM: I’d like to add that it varies state to state as well, and within proximity to marine science schools.  For instance in areas like Florida. We can have 2 local, coastal schools providing an endless stream of qualified new graduates, which can have an impact on entry level jobs staying very close to the minimum wage.   It is not unheard of for mid-level positions to stay in the $40k to $62k range regardless of degrees and years of experience in Florida. The six figure offerings tend to be offered in private consulting, contracting and not with major employers. However there are research opportunities and University positions that can exceed $100,000. 

KC: It also varies based on the organization. I oversee a team of scientists who experience has ranged from 20+ years to recent graduates in roles from grantees to contractors to federal employees. For my feds, the pay bands I hire start around $60/70k and then proceed upwards to ~$170k. Depends on the skills, the position, and the locality, but there are well compensated jobs in marine biology if you need to help calm your parent’s worries!

CM: This is another place where job searches can also help you set your expectations in a realistic place. Because there are so many people interested in and passionate about marine science and conservation, the field can be a little exploitive. It’s okay to be willing to work for relatively low pay to do something you love, and okay to decide you aren’t willing to do that. But gathering information early can help ensure you aren’t surprised by what the job market looks like or what jobs in the field pay. 

AB: This is a very hard question to pinpoint with a specific answer.  The truth is that some people volunteer for positions and are not paid at all, but may receive some form of compensation such as room and board, etc.  It widely depends on how much relevant experience you have and what the organization’s pay structure or funding availability is.  It also depends on your technical skills – SCUBA or GIS or boat tech skills might increase the compensation.  In general, I recommend looking at wage comparison websites like Payscale, Glassdoor, or ZipRecruiter when you are ready to look at career exploration to get a sense of what the pay is for your particular job in your particular location. 

HK: Adding in the international element to this, there’s a huge variation. The best thing is to look on jobs pages to see the variation in salaries across roles and geographies. Volunteering can help build experience and networks, but ensure it’s fair and not exploitative. Similarly, approach ‘voluntourism’ opportunities (where you pay) with caution – spend time checking they are credible and ethical. 

Where are marine biology jobs based geographically? What jobs would let me travel around the world? What jobs would give me stability and let me put down roots?

DS: There are marine biology jobs all over the world, and it doesn’t just need to be by a coast! There are several landlocked universities that do a lot of marine biology, either with captive animals, samples sent to you from colleagues elsewhere, or a “field season” where you travel to collect data. Seasonal field assistant jobs or dive guide jobs can help you to travel around the world, whereas more permanent staff scientist positions or those affiliated with aquariums or government agencies or non-profits can help you stay in one place.

EM: Stability and roots can be hard to achieve in the early development of your career path, consider being more flexible about geographic location as you establish yourself, but with an overall goal in mind you can certainly set your sights on a specific destination. Travel can also be a job perk and consider planning added leave to a conference or research site to allow yourself time to experience a different perspective of a site you may be working in.

CM: Working in cultures where you did not grow up can come with additional complications, though, and it’s not uncommon for scientists or conservation organizations to engage in some problematic behaviors, including “helicopter science” or failing to take the needs and preferences of local communities into account while making conservation plans or rules. Doing some research and ensuring you are able to operate in a respectful way in cultures that aren’t your own before you go is essential if you hope to work abroad! 

AB: Marine biology jobs are often found in coastal communities where there is a prominent university, NGO or government presence/lab/office.  And yes, they can additionally be associated with national-level organizations headquartered in Washington DC, for example, or universities based in landlocked areas.

HK: There are marine biology jobs all over the world, but you will need to ensure you have the right to work there. Also worth being aware of some of the challenges around ‘parachute science’ and ensuring that international opportunities are appropriate and that you’ve spent time understanding the culture and history (including colonial history) of the country where the opportunity might be: READ MORE.

Do I get to pick my own research question? If so, how do I come up with a good research question? If not, who picks?

DS: When you’re first getting started, you’re probably not picking the research questions you work on. A lab lead (or Primary Investigator/PI) is usually the one who picks research questions, applies for funding to answer those questions, and hires people to answer already-picked questions. But one way to help pick research questions is to consult already-published lists of research priorities. That way you know you’re picking a question that needs to be answered, because other people have already said so.  Here’s a list of research questions I helped create.

EM: Our ocean planet still remains largely unexplored, so indeed marine science does have a plethora of unanswered questions.  In higher ed, yes you will likely be in the position to assist someone else, a Pi, with answering a question, but there will be plenty of opportunity to pursue the answers to the questions that you have as well. 

KC: Sometimes a PI will have an overarching question or long term project funded and then the students come up with their own take on the topic or small portion of that bigger topic to handle as part of their work. This was the case for both my husband and I in grad school. This is also why it’s important to meet with all prospective advisors before you get too far down the road of applying so you can see if you’ll be good collaborators and if they’ll be a good mentor, but also so you know what to expect research-wise. 

CM: Especially at an early career stage, I think it’s more helpful to think about the kinds of questions you want to answer and the research tools you would need in your toolbox to answer them than to focus on a specific question. If your dream research question has to do with movement or habitat use, the best lab for you to get a graduate degree isn’t one where you can do your dream project, necessarily, but one that will teach you the skills you need to pursue your dream project(s) in the future. As an example, if your dream is to study movement of blacktip sharks, you’d likely be better off in a lab that studies tuna movement than one that studies blacktip shark diet–because you’d learn the skills you need to answer the kinds of questions you hope to answer. 

HK: Start with what you’re interested in, what you’d like to find out, and what research skills you’d like to develop. Then it’s a case of doing lots of reading to see what’s been done in that area and find the gaps – some areas are better studied than others, but there are plenty of research questions to be asked across the field of marine biology. I’ve worked with students who have general areas of interest rather than well defined questions and others who have very clear questions of their own. Either way, find an advisor who works in your area of interest and supports you to develop your research skills, which includes learning how to develop and define a well-articulated research question.   

PART 2: Degrees, skills, and other things you need to get a job.

What are some good schools to study marine biology during my undergraduate degree? Do I need to live by the ocean to study marine biology?

DS: This is one of the most common questions I get, and I hate answering it. There is no “best school.” There are lots of schools that will prepare you well for a career as a scientist, and no they’re not all on the coast! I answered this in detail in my SCUBA Diving Magazine column and would direct you there.

EM: You don’t need to live by the ocean to study or work in marine biology.  Does it help to be able to get there? Yes.   I think being a good student is the most valuable component of the undergraduate degree experience.  Look up scientists you admire and check out their undergraduate degree. You will likely be surprised at the diverse range of schools they attended.  Dr Dawn Wright (ESRI) – Wheaton College.  Cindy Lee Van Dover – Rutgers.  Dr Sylvia Earle – St Petersburg Junior College. Marie Tharpe – Ohio University. Dr Edie Widder – Tufts University. Dr Euginie Clark – Hunter College.  

AB: I would look for a school that offers the things you are interested in or that you need based on your financial or geographic needs.  Many, many schools offer general biology and marine biology degree programs.  They absolutely do not need to be located by the ocean.  For example, Duke University is fortunate to have its own Marine Lab campus located in coastal North Carolina.  Additionally, Duke participates in a Marine Sciences Education Consortium where students from any college or university are welcome to attend classes at the Duke Marine Lab.  The Consortium itself consists of 35+ colleges and universities from across the United States.  It was developed to provide a formal curriculum in the marine sciences (including supervised research) for colleges and universities that do not already offer specialized marine science programs.  More information.  The biggest quality you need to have is the motivation and passion to pursue your marine science experience, whatever you decide that looks like. 

Do I need to major in marine biology as an undergraduate to become a marine biologist later? Can I major in biology, ecology, wildlife science, chemistry, etc.? Does my minor matter?

DS: You don’t have to major in marine biology to be a marine biologist, but I would strongly recommend majoring in some kind of related scientific field. It’s easier to transition from Ecology in undergrad to Marine Biology in grad school than to transition from Art History in undergrad to Marine Biology in grad school, because you probably won’t have taken many of the required prereqs. But a more broad-based science education as an undergrad can help you. And your minor can help, or can just be a fun way to pursue a side passion- I minored in history, for example. 

EM: Best advice I ever received – get a standard biology degree as an undergrad. Take your electives in marine science and take any job that is marine science adjacent to build your resume, skills and contacts.   If your undergrad institution offers a minor in marine biology, certainly wouldn’t hurt to add this to your degree plan, but there are no shortage of other good choices too – chemistry, environmental science, GIS, etc. 

KC: Absolutely not! There are so many paths you can take to get here, and even if you decide later this is the field you want to get into, there are many opportunities to pivot. One of the people who taught me the most about the deep sea and was a world expert in deep sea corals majored in theater in undergrad. I also know several people who have been successful in the field without graduate degrees or have waited until they know exactly what they want to study in order to pursue their PhD. The school is important and your major(s)/minor(s) offer you wonderful opportunities to learn and explore, but the degree is only one aspect of your package as a future employee. More important in my mind as a hiring manager is people’s experience, so whatever your degree, do research in a lab, participate in REUs, and intern somewhere, and don’t feel constrained to the discipline of your major. These experiences help grow your skills, but also are really helpful in figuring out what you don’t  want to do.  

HK: I’m based in the UK which has a different system. If you are absolutely certain then go for a Marine Biology degree, but it will not limit your career pathway to do a more general degree in Biology, Biological Sciences, Environmental Science etc. Look at the components of the degree and how much they interest you. It’s also good to look into the researchers and lecturers at that university to see what they study and how that aligns with your interests. The location and type of university is also important depending on what will work best for you, for example, whether you prefer to be in a major city or a campus university, what funding options/scholarships might be available to support your degree, and access/travel to home/family.   

What are some skills I should learn, and/or classes I should be sure to take, while I’m an undergraduate to improve my chances of getting into graduate school, or getting a job, later?

DS: The most important thing you can learn is how to be a scientist, which means doing some kind of independent research (NOT just working for minimum wage cleaning glassware in someone’s lab). Other things like field skills or certain lab assays or how to use certain software packages are great, but this is the most important thing.

EM: In addition to the standard courses, consider a writing course. You will spend a lot of time writing. Your career will involve writing grants, partnership agreements, research papers, articles, etc.  Do whatever you can to enhance that skill set. An accounting class can’t hurt.  Grants and grant budgets can be a challenge to manage, so always a good skill to add to  your resume. 

KC: GIS and learn to code. Bonus points for learning how to use AI smartly to advance your research topic (note this is not a replacement for good research, but a tool to use). Also don’t underestimate the soft skills. When I hire people I would always take someone who has high emotional intelligence, is a good team player, like learning new things, and has good project management skills over a technical expert that lacks these things. I can teach you any technical skills, but soft skills are much harder to teach and bad habits are hard to break. 

AB: I will also emphasize the social and communication skills.  When I talk to alumni and employers, they absolutely emphasize (in addition to technical skills and STEM coursework) that being a good communicator, having administrative and organizational skills, and being a team player are key attributes of successful early career job candidates that they look for in the application and interview process.

How do I know what kinds of skills jobs will require?

DS: As has been mentioned by others a few times already, the easiest way to know what kinds of skills a job you might want in the future will require is to look at jobs that are posted right now and see what jobs they require. It’s extremely unlikely that an entirely new kind of job with an entirely new required skillset will start to exist in the next few years. Here’s an exercise I do with my students.

AB: As David mentioned above, reading current job descriptions is a really good way to learn more about a role.  Many of us prefer to look at job titles, or names of companies, rather than looking at the description of work and preferred skills for the role.  Another great tool here is networking – reaching out and finding time to talk with people who are currently in roles at all levels in the field you think you want to pursue can be very valuable.  If you want to really get the most out of a networking conversation, make sure you prepare well (do your research on any publicly available bio information) and ask specific questions.

How can I gain skills outside of college?

EM:  Say yes more often.  Many times a lab or research project will require someone on staff to be certified in a random skill.  Forklift operator, Wilderness First Responder, Lifeguard or Commercial Truck Driver.   Volunteer to do it!  Get the skill, say yes and make yourself a valuable part of the team!

AB: Internships are great to try things for a short-term commitment (usually around 100 days, often during a summer break, often paid or for college credit).  Other opportunities can be part-time work (example – data analyst, environmental educator), or volunteer opportunities (example – museums, zoos, and aquariums) if you are in a financial position to be able to do so.  Note – volunteering should be on YOUR terms of interest and availability, and does not necessarily mean that an organization should be asking for or receiving unpaid work.

HK: Recognise the wider skills you are gaining through anything you do outside of college – for example if you have a job in a cafe or bar, you’ve developed interpersonal skills, likely dealt with conflict, and shown you can work long and anti-social hours. I often look for ‘real world’ experience alongside academic qualification as it’s important to know the person has common sense, practical skills, can work in a team etc.

Do I need to be SCUBA certified to be a marine biologist? Do I need to be good on boats?

DS: You absolutely do not need to be SCUBA certified to be a marine biologist- I have hundreds of dives, but 0 of them were for work, they’re just fun. At the last scientific conference I attended, I counted, and out of 80 or so talks I attended, 1 involved SCUBA-based research. There are Scientific Diver type jobs out there, but most marine biology jobs simply do not require this skillset, which is good news if you have medical conditions that preclude you from SCUBA diving. And I know lots of marine biologists who get extremely seasick and never go on boats- there’s tons of work to do on dry (and steady) land. 

CM: Agreed! Some marine biologists dive a lot for work, but probably many more never or rarely need to dive. I’m in the field 100+ days a year, and almost none of those are diving days.

HK: Marine biology jobs are really diverse as we’ve mentioned elsewhere, but many do not involve being on/underwater. If spending time diving/on boats is a motivator for you becoming a marine biologist, that’s certainly possible, but there are plenty of alternatives if you don’t

If I need to work to pay the bills for now with a future goal of moving to marine science, how can I gain skills and stay competitive?

AB: I always think it is a good idea to look at your personal finance situation with a family member and/or financial professional and figure out the minimum salary you will need to pay your bills and work toward the lifestyle you want.  And then keep looking at your goals for contributing to the marine science profession and asking yourself if you are working toward making them happen.  For example, I know people who have paid positions in industries outside of marine science such as wealth management, medicine, or teaching.  They join marine science non-profit organizations as supporters or volunteers, serve on (volunteer) boards or advisory councils, or participate in community outreach organizations (paid part-time or seasonal positions or as a volunteer).  I also think it is a great investment to join professional organizations such as the Society for Conservation Biology’s Marine section, or the National Marine Education Association to stay competitive and grow your network in the marine sciences.  That way, when the time is right to apply for a marine science job, you will know people in the organizations you want to work for that can keep you updated on available opportunities.

HK: Many jobs that pay the bills will still give you transferable skills in marine science and I work with people who come from a wide range of backgrounds, from the military to architecture to administration. So whatever job you are doing, you will have some relevant skills, so ensure you can recognise and articulate those. Keeping connected with the field is important – read, go to talks (online or in person), and try to maintain or build your network in marine science. This might be through volunteering (which can be online or in person e.g. citizen science projects, your local aquarium), membership of organisations e.g. Marine Biological Association, or alumni events through your university. You can also be active on social media, write blogs, or other communications that keep you involved in the field.

I’m bad at math, is that going to be a problem for me pursuing a career in ocean science?

DS: There are certainly some careers within the broader marine biology world that don’t require a strong math skillset, but most of them do require math and writing skills. 

EM: Would it help you feel better to tell you that I took General Chem I three times before I passed? Yes, I too have struggled with math.  It’s going to be ok.  So many tools and learning strategies and accessible ways to use math that are helpful in your career path. Don’t let it stop you!

HK: Me too! I worked hard to get the basic grounding but never enjoyed it, then ever since have collaborated with people who are brilliant at maths and love it! So I am a huge advocate of collaboration as you can’t be good at everything but there’s always someone out there who has the skills you don’t.

I studied something completely different from marine biology, not a science degree at all. Am I eligible for marine biology jobs? If not, how can I gain the skills I need?

KC: There are SO MANY jobs in this field and not all of them require the same degree or same skillset! I work with artists, engineers, scientists, data scientists and programers, professional communicators, ship operators, program managers, chefs, filmmakers, deckhands, broadcast  and A/V technicians, IT professionals, budget and finance experts, and I can honestly say I couldn’t be successful in my job without each and everyone of them. The way I like to think about it is that we all are passionate about the ocean, but with the variety of skills we all have, we each have our own personal lens through which we see the ocean and can contribute to this field.

AB: I advise graduate students on careers in marine conservation, and the variety of undergraduate majors that our students bring to the program is very broad.  We have STEM majors of all kinds including engineering and psychology, liberal arts majors from history to geography to anthropology, and even humanities and fine arts majors.  The best way to gain the skills that you need is to identify what the job is that you want to do, and then talk to hiring managers, those in the role, and read job descriptions to determine what skills they are looking for in new hires.  Then set about getting the type and level of training appropriate for the role.  Along the way, take note of whether you like those skills/classes and whether you have aptitude for them.  And if the answer is “no” to either of those observations, you might want to adjust your goal and recalibrate your career path.  There is absolutely no harm in that.

I graduated with a STEM degree, but haven’t worked in the field for years. Now I’m trying to get back in. Any advice?

AB:  It might be good to take a refresher class for the skills that you will be using most frequently in the work you want to pursue.  For example – statistics or survey design and analysis might be using new software, or there are updated standards for Institutional Review Board (IRB) protocol for working with human subjects. If you plan to be doing field work or sampling, you might want to connect with practitioners in the field to see how the work has changed since you last conducted work or classes.  Coursera or other free or low cost educational classes can provide a general review of subjects or refresher from your degree program.  Local college options (community college or stand alone courses) are also an option.

EM:  Have someone working in the sciences take a peek at your resume.  You may need 2 or 3 versions of your resume or CV as you re-enter the science field and you’ll want to try to avoid formatting that resembles trends in the business world and may not be as current in the science field.  Determine if the employer is using Ai to scan applicants or if there is a higher chance that the candidate lists will be viewed by a human.  MANY jobs have 100’s of applicants and if it is an HR person scanning applicants, they are going to look for key things that align with the minimum qualifications to move your application forward.  For instance – if the job application says “degree required” make sure your degree(s) is at the top, not on page 2.

Do I need a Masters to be a marine biologist? Do I need a Ph.D.? What’s the difference?

DS: Again I recommend seeing what jobs are out there and what they require. Most jobs that pay decently require at least a Masters. If you want to be running a lab of your own or having a higher-level position, you’re probably going to need a Ph.D. 

AB: You do not “need” a masters to be a marine biologist, but you will want to think through your career path and end goals to determine what level of continuing education the people hold who are in the roles you seek.  The main difference between most Masters degrees and most PhD programs is the level or depth of the research process (thesis vs. dissertation vs. capstone project, data collection, prelims and oral exams or not, etc.) and the time it takes to complete the degree (Masters = 1-2 years, PhD = 3-6 years, typically).  

HK: It depends what type of job you are looking for. If you are on a research pathway, then a Masters is a good next step and if you don’t go the research route, it will still be helpful for a career in marine biology. Look at job adverts to see the range and type of job you can get with and without a Masters or PhD. I’d also recommend getting work experience if you can, so you don’t just move through each course one after the other. 

If I know I want to get a Ph.D. eventually, should I get a Masters first?

DS: I did, and don’t regret my decision, as I learned more skills, confirmed that I loved science and research, and then was able to hit the ground running as a Ph.D. student. But this path does mean more time as a student and waiting longer to earn money, which may not be feasible. If you have significant research experience as an undergrad, you can perhaps skip the Masters. But I know some PIs/advisors who will not take Ph.D. students unless they already have a Masters. 

AB: I think this can largely be dependent on your level of research experience during your undergraduate degree, and the expectations of the lab/advisor for your PhD.  It is highly variable and might be more of a case by case basis based on the individuals involved.

CM: As someone who went into a PhD program without an MS, I wish I’d had one. I feel I would have gotten more out of the early years of my PhD if I hadn’t been learning a lot of things MS students often already know.

Is a non-thesis Masters/online Masters professionally useful for me?

AB:  Professional Masters programs can be useful if they provide relevant coursework or field experiences (for example a practicum, travel course, or Fellowship) and come with a strong alumni or professional network.  An online masters program can allow you geographic flexibility and possibly the opportunity to continue to work or be with family during your degree program.

CM: I think they can also be an asset for career-changers who might not have a competitive background for an MS, but whether or not something will be useful to you depends a lot on what you’re trying to accomplish. I would say it’s most likely to be useful if you make the most of the opportunity–make sure you’re learning as many relevant skills as possible and investing in building your professional network.

I love the ocean, but science isn’t for me. What other careers are available to support marine science or conservation without doing the research myself?

DS: A quick look at the jobs boards reveals several ocean conservation non-profits are hiring grants administrators, IT professionals, graphic designers, and accountants. 

EM: I would encourage you to look into the Blue Economy. Think about marine technology and Ai. Sustainability, travel and ecotourism. Grant writing and storytelling and fundraising are going to be in need now more than ever.  

KC: Add to that list: film makers, GIS managers/architects/data managers, science communications, grant administration, education/teaching, advocacy, journalism, data visualizers, budget and acquisition specialists, and a variety of program administration/management jobs that facilitate science or oversee it as the people in leadership. Good places to look for jobs like these are federal and state governments, and non-profits.

AB: Development/fundraising is a key skill that most conservation organizations rely on, and Human Resources (recruitment and training in particular) can also provide pathways to supporting ocean conservation that are not science-focused.

HK: There are lots of opportunities – if you like being on/underwater look at dive instructors/boat operators or being a wildlife guide. A number of hotels and resorts hire marine biologists (but check them carefully first). Zoos and aquariums hire aquarists and educators. Ocean conservation organisations need everything from press officers to accountants to HR specialists to coordinators and administrators. Consultancies employ people to conduct environmental impact assessments or wildlife monitoring.

PART 3: Internships 

How important are internships in gaining skills that will help me get a job later?

AB: I think internships are a great way to gain skills in your early career.  This is a time to become familiar with a professional workplace, and it also gives you immediate access to people working in jobs or careers that you might want to have in the future.  The expectations of interns are that you are new in your role and early in your career, so a good internship supervisor will be receptive to questions, clarifications, and even mistakes and willing to help you understand how to communicate professionally and work toward some professional outcomes that will be helpful in future interviews.

CM: Internships are also a great way to try some things out. You don’t want to make huge time or financial investments in preparing to do work you don’t actually like, so internships can play a key role in getting a feel for the day-to-day of different kinds of work and how much you enjoy them!

HK: They can be useful to build skills and give you something ‘extra’ on top of your academic qualifications. They help build networks and allow you to test a type of job or organisation. It will depend on the type of internship, so look carefully at ‘pay to play’ or ‘voluntourism’ opportunities. Internships should be paid, or provide the intern with some fair support.

What sort of things will I do in an internship?

AB: There is a wide range of possibilities here:

• Field work, data collection, data analysis
• Communications and outreach – social media posts, blog articles, photos, digital media, market research and data analytics
• Education – giving public presentations, exhibitor at events and festivals, touch tanks/animal handling, summer camp or school group coordinator
• Graduate level projects can include – policy analysis, project management, research, literature review, GIS mapping

What are your thoughts on unpaid or pay-to-participate internships?

EM:  Don’t do it. Unpaid volunteer work is different, a lot of us still volunteer to support organizations.  I have seen the pay-to-participate internships listed on resumes and how it can create bias in hiring committees. Participating in an internship is a great way to gain experience, but you should be comfortable with the exchange – maybe housing and meals are offered in exchange – but you shouldn’t be paying for everything or paying to be the one selected.

KC: This is the hill I will die on- we as a broad science community need to do better and ensure that our entire research enterprise is not built on a foundation of uncompensated work. This isn’t to say that a student will be looked at poorly for volunteering their time to a project, but more to say that we all need to collectively be better about offering compensated positions. We all had to volunteer 

AB: Highly recommend seeking paid opportunities if at all possible.  Unpaid internships should be considered more of a volunteer experience OR should be arranged on the student’s own terms (i.e. part time or within a certain week or two) and should be experiential rather than output focused.  If you are an unpaid intern, you should gain networking contacts and valuable (to you) experiences that you could not access as a member of the public.  You should not be asked to do work that is similar to what is expected from compensated staff or that is in opposition to fair labor standards (in the US, this is the Fair Labor Standards Act).  Note: the perspective on unpaid internships has shifted significantly in the past 10-15 years (2010-present) so students may encounter supervisors who are not in agreement with this viewpoint.     

CM: I completely agree with what others have said. The way I think about it, the most ethical unpaid internship options are directly teaching you skills and offering you mentorship and other things of value. Especially if you are mostly doing non-skill-building tasks (data entry, cleaning, etc.), you absolutely should be being paid.

Is volunteering somewhere a good way to get a job there eventually? What if I’ve been volunteering there for a long time and no jobs have opened up?

DS: If an organization tells you that volunteering will turn into a job, and that doesn’t happen, and they keep telling you that a job will surely materialize soon, and that keeps not happening… perhaps take the hint.

AB: Volunteering can be a way to become familiar with an organization you would like to work for, and to get to know people doing the work that you think you want to pursue.  But it is never a guaranteed path to employment, and not even a common one in my experience. If you are volunteering at an organization with the expectation of being hired, you should talk to the volunteer coordinator about your goals and ask if volunteering is a pathway to achieve them.  And if you have been volunteering for a long time and no jobs have opened up, you might want to expand your job search or consider leaving the organization if you do not otherwise enjoy the experience.

CM: My advice is always: if you wouldn’t be happy to have done it if it doesn’t turn into a job, I wouldn’t recommend doing it.

HK: Volunteering can help connect you with organisations, build your skills, and enable you to do something tangible in line with your interests. It also keeps you connected with the sector if you are working in another one (for whatever reason). You can volunteer remotely online, or in person, so find the opportunity that’s right for you. It shouldn’t feel burdensome or extractive. If you’re looking for the volunteering to lead to a job within the organisation, it’s worth having a conversation to that effect with whoever manages the volunteer programme to gain advice on how best to understand job prospects and build your skills to meet them.

What are some signs to look for that an internship is going to be actually helpful professionally, and what are some red flags to look for?

EM: Red flag – you have to pay to be an intern. Green flags – they offer you training and certifications, maybe they need a Rescue Diver on the team and they will pay for you to complete the course.  You get positive feedback and open communication with the team you are working with. 

KC: ask around the community and former students- what are their thoughts on the mentor and what are those former students up to now? No job is worth working in a toxic environment that may cause you to leave the field all together. We all know bad actors that we will gently guide students away from.

AB: Signs that an internship is going to be helpful professionally

• You get periodic feedback from your supervisor on your performance
• You meet people in the organization outside of your immediate work unit that remember your name and comment on your experience or presence as an intern
• You learn a new skill of any sort or refine skills you learned in class, and find it valuable to add this experience to your resume
• There is a cohort of interns from various departments that are all organized together (sometimes by HR) for training and social support, or your internship is part of a formalized program

Red flags:

• There is a long history of interns at the organization and none of them (or only very few) have ever been hired for full time roles. 
• The internship is funded by a third party (university or external program) and not the org itself.  
• The internship is not enjoyable, is disorganized, or there is very little supervisor feedback.

PART 4: Applying for graduate school

What are the general differences between applying for an undergraduate program and applying for a graduate program?

DS: When you’re applying for graduate school, you are usually applying to a *lab* first. Basically everyone applying to graduate school has an undergrad degree in STEM and is academically qualified, but you probably won’t get accepted unless you have an advisor willing to support you. 

AB: Applying for a graduate program has more to do with specific faculty interests, coursework, or experiences that you are looking to gain.  Graduate admissions processes can include relevant coursework, previous research or work experience, and publications or other outputs.

CM: There are quite a lot of online resources that provide advice on this topic. One thing I’d especially recommend is joining science communities online (my main one at this point is Bluesky). Faculty will often post about it when they are recruiting students, and your odds of finding the right opportunity go way up when you’re contacting labs that actually have space and funding for students that year.

What factors should I consider when searching for graduate programs?

EM: It is never too soon to start looking.  Remember that the faculty or researcher you want to work with is a human being too.  Pay attention to the academic calendar and the research season.  What does this mean?  Don’t email the first week of December expecting an answer. They are grading exams, planning graduation and taking a winter break.  They aren’t going to answer your email and it will be lost when they get back to the office in January. Pay attention to peak field sessions.  If you are looking into studying Christmas Island crabs and their migration, don’t email in October/November during peak migration – again your email will get lost.   

AB: Cost, location, length of program, faculty or lab focus, selectivity of the university.

How do I find potential advisors? How do I contact potential advisors? What should my initial contact look like?

DS: First, think about what kind of work you want to be doing- and by this, I do not mean “sharks” or “sea turtles,” but “movement ecology” or “life history and reproduction” or “sustainable fisheries.” Then, identify a long list of potential advisors. A great way to do this on your own is to do a mini literature review, examining recent papers that seem like the sort of work you’d like to be doing, and noting who is doing that work and where they work. Make a running list of such people. Once you have this, most initial contacts are via email, and should be brief: “Hi Dr. So-and-so, my name is so-and-so, and I’m looking for graduate school positions studying so-and-so. I’m wondering if you are taking graduate students at this time and if you might be free for a brief call at your convenience.” One possible adjustment to this would be if you have met the person before or may be about to meet them- “We met at so-and-so conference” or “I’m going to be attending so-and-so conference in a few weeks and I noticed you will be too.” Also, sometimes if your advisor knows the person, that can be an in. But your initial contact should be brief, not a whole novel of your whole life story. Let them ask for more information. Also, please be aware that by far the most common response you’re going to get is no response at all, followed by “I have no positions at this time,” so cast a wide net here.

If I don’t hear back after contacting potential advisors, can I/should I follow up? How often, and after how long?

DS: I would advise following up once after a few weeks. Don’t follow up if it’s been a couple of days. Don’t follow up repeatedly. People are busy and may miss your initial inquiry, but you don’t want to annoy them. Consider that no answer to repeated inquiries is, in fact, an answer…just not an answer that you like. 

CM: Also, please be nice (faculty are people). During peak periods, I might be getting 10-15 of these email inquiries a day. I work hard to respond to them all individually, but I’m doing that in my free time on top of all of my other job responsibilities. So if someone takes the time to get back to you, even if they aren’t giving you the answer you want, please keep things polite and friendly. Thank them for taking the time to get back to you. You never know whether they might be relevant to you again some time in the future! 

HK: Definitely follow up – advisors are busy with heavy email loads, may travel or be on fieldwork, so may miss initial enquiries. Pay attention to out-of-office messages and follow up after then.

How many different graduate programs should I apply for?

DS: Some of the “famous” people in my field report that they get 100+ applicants for 0 or 1 spots. In other words, don’t put all your eggs in one basket and cast a wide net and pick your cliche here. Apply for several. 

AB: It depends on your timeline, needs, and geographic flexibility.  In general, I might suggest applying for at least 2-4 professional masters programs and if you are looking at PhD programs, it might depend on how well or quickly you establish a relationship with a lab or PI.

My desired graduate program requires students to bring their own research funding. Is that normal? How do I do that?

DS: That is atypical but it happens. Usually this would be in the form of a fellowship like the National Science Foundation GRFP or equivalent, which are extremely competitive and just had their funding support cut. One thing you can do is to offer to write a grant with your prospective PI, rather than having to do it by yourself. But again, this is atypical.

Do graduate degrees transfer internationally? If I get a Masters or Ph.D. in one country, will jobs in another country recognize it? 

KC: Depends on the job and the requirements. If you get a degree outside of the US but want to work for the US Government, you have to get that degree reviewed and certified before it can count towards a positive education requirement (a degree that is required by the job). If this applies to you, start this process early as you need to provide a copy of the certification as part of your application.

AB: If the university is accredited, jobs will generally recognize it.  Some employers may ask for (unofficial) transcripts, which you can request in general as an alum and have ready to submit.

Should I take a gap year between undergrad and graduate school?

EM:  Did you get accepted into a grad program? Do you know what it is you want to study? Are you sure? Have you spent time in that field of study?  I have run into a good number of students who enjoy mangrove research in January and want to run for the hills in July when temps are over 37C and humidity is 99% and the bugs are 100%.   Do you have funding?  Lots of reasons to go for it, but no worries if a gap year is better for you.

AB: This is a personal decision, based on many factors including your financial situation, how clear of an idea you have on what post-graduation opportunities will help you achieve your career goals, what opportunities made you an offer, your personal situation (do you have family obligations or a partner that is restricted to a certain geography), etc. However, I do not think that applying to graduate school only because you have no idea what you want to do or no other options is also not ideal.  In this instance, if you are well-supported, you may decide to take a gap year or explore job or career options for a year before applying to graduate school.

CM: There aren’t right or wrong answers on this (or on lots of questions about living your life). If you want to take one and feel it would benefit you, it almost definitely would. If you’re feeling burned out and like you need a break from school or a chance to try something else, do it! If you want to go straight to graduate school, go ahead. I worked for several years in between and got a lot out of that time and those experiences, but only you can answer the question for yourself. (I often think students get more out of grad school having taken a year or two off, but that’s just my anecdotal observation).

How far in advance of graduating with a bachelors should I start applying for graduate school?

DS: If you are not planning on taking a gap year, probably early fall of your senior year. Decisions are made in spring, with a start date of the next fall. So if you’re graduating in Spring 2026, apply for graduate schools in fall 2025, you’ll hear in spring 2026, and could start in fall 2026.But you should apply having already done your initial inquiries to potential advisors as discussed throughout this section.

What is the difference between a thesis-based and non-thesis-based Masters, in terms of what I’d be doing as well as what the degree allows me to do?

CM: Differences can vary a lot. At my institution, those students have all of the same course requirements. The big difference for us is that our MPS (non-thesis) degree is a pre-professional degree (designed to help you move into a job in the field after graduation), while the MS is a pre-doctoral degree (designed to prepare you for a PhD program). I have had numerous students who get an MPS go on to get a PhD, and numerous students move from an MS directly into work. If you are in a non-thesis program and want to go on for a PhD, my biggest advice is to seek out opportunities as part of that degree to contribute to publishable scientific research–the difference between the degrees matters much less if you have one or more peer-reviewed publications.

What is a PostDoc and how do I find one?

HK: A postdoc is (usually) the next research step after you have your PhD. There are postdoc job sites where they are advertised, as well as on social media.

DS: You can think of a Postdoc kind of like an apprenticeship under a professor, moreso than grad school is. It’s assumed that you need less supervision, and you’ll get to do more (and get paid more).

Part 5: Finding and applying for other jobs

How do I stand out as an applicant to an entry-level job?

CM: All of the basic job application tips: proof-read for typos, put time and effort into tailoring your materials to the job, be polite and professional in all of your interactions with hiring committees. But at the entry-level, your experience and knowledge are going to look a lot like those of many other applicants, so the most important thing is to apply widely. You’re looking for an organization that sees a strong match between your interests and skillsets and what they need, so the more appropriate jobs you apply for, the better the likelihood you find one that sees you as a match. I tell my students that if they aren’t getting rejections from things they forgot they applied for, they probably aren’t applying enough. 

AB: Be specific! Find a way to articulate why you are interested in this particular job, this particular organization, or how you found it, etc.  And then tell them why you would be the best candidate for the job.  Bonus points – tell them “what you think” – try to show your passion or reason for being in this field.  This can be hard to do in your early career so it is not as important to convey as the “why you” and “why this job” parts.

HK: Spend time on your covering letter as this is what will be where you can make yourself distinct from the basic qualifications and skills in your CV. Keep it short, tailored to the role and organisation, and give a sense of who you are and why you want that role within that organisation. Don’t be afraid to include wider skills you might have got from other jobs. Attention to detail (spelling, including names) and easy to read format are really important. Avoid throwaway lines e.g. ‘I work equally well in a team or alone’ that don’t tell the reviewer anything useful. Remember someone may be screening 10s or 100s of applications, so are often looking for reasons to reject an application.

Where are some places to learn about what jobs are available? Websites, jobs boards, etc.?

DS: There are lots of jobs boards, I link to some of my favorites here. Also if you follow me on LinkedIn I share several jobs ads a day. 

AB: I always advise people to “curate their inboxes”.  Sign up for resources that send job leads to you on a regular basis.  These can be RSS feeds, newsletters, social media hashtags, joining jobs forums, getting digest versions of listservs, etc.

I love fieldwork and being on a boat, and I hate labwork, what sorts of jobs should I look for?

KC: Look at NOAA! Or apply to be a lab tech or lab manager at a university. Several non-profits also have similar positions.

CM: State agencies, too, like Florida Fish and Wildlife, often have fieldwork-heavy jobs! But few jobs aren’t going to ask you to do the less glamorous parts of this kind of work too, which may include labwork, data entry, gear building or repair, etc. There is no job that won’t have boring, frustrating, or un-fun aspects to it that make it feel like…a job. Even your dream job! 

AB: Look for jobs with an outreach component – can be field based but not often lab based!

I’m not able to spend time on boats or doing other fieldwork, what sorts of jobs should I look for?

CM: This really depends on your interests and skills. Social media or science communication jobs, lab jobs, non-profit or advocacy work can all offer you science or science-adjacent careers with minimal to no fieldwork.

KC: Consider NOAA!

AB: Wide range of jobs for sure – government agencies at all levels (Federal, State, local in US), NGO project manager and program coordinator jobs, science communication and media roles, environmental consulting, private sector sustainability work.

I’m interested in a job with the US government. How does USAJOBS work?

KC: Navigating USAjobs and the federal application process can be really daunting, so don’t be dismayed if you don’t make it through the first time you apply. A couple things to know up front: 1) federal resumes are really different from what you would be using to apply for a corporate job. They’re usually much longer (mine is currently 18 pages) and are very descriptive and all encompassing of your work. These would be closer to a full CV than to a 2 page abbreviated resume. 2) If you are really interested in the position, you should customize your resume to it. There will be duties and required qualifications in every position- read these carefully and look for ways you can include the exact words in your resume (note: some agencies- e.g. some positions at NASA, do not allow this, but it will be listed in their job listing if they have any special requirements so be sure to read the full announcement). The first person to review your resume will be someone that is not the hiring manager, which is why it is important to use the exact keywords. 3) It is unfortunately easier to get a federal job once you are in the system than it is when you’re starting with zero federal experience. Look for positions that are designed to help you get a foot in the door- Hollings Program, Knauss Fellowship, Presidential Management Fellowship, Pathways positions to name a few. 4) Just because you didn’t get an interview or passed on to the hiring manager doesn’t mean you are a good candidate, if you’d like some additional information about why you didn’t, you can ask for feedback from either the hiring manager or the HR specialist listed on the announcement. This can be a good way to learn if there’s an error on your resume (e.g. listing “full time” instead of “40 hrs/wk” is a common mistake). I recommend people start with their full CV, then go through each job (including volunteer work!) and add a detailed write up of the responsibilities associated with these jobs. You can use bullet points or full sentences, but think about readability as the hiring manager will likely be reading a lot of resumes. Focus on what you did and how it mattered. Any metrics or outcomes you can add are a benefit! Use the exact words in the job announcement- if they say “ocean mapping” use that term instead of “hydrography” or “bathymetry”. Next I tell people to work the required qualifications and duties into their resume- e.g. if the required experience was “provide expert advice on ocean mapping”, I would have a bullet that said “ Provided expert advice on ocean mapping by planning 15 seagoing expeditions that included ocean mapping technology. Recommended new technology to improve data collection methods”, etc. If you’d like to include your publications, do so at the end and make sure you have followed the instructions in the job announcement as closely as possible and not missed any required information as after the job announcement closes, any additional information cannot be added to your application. [NOTE from DS: after this advice was written, a new Executive Order from the Trump Administration promised changes to this long-established protocol, and Federal hiring and the USAJobs process are changing and somewhat unclear at this time. These changes are being protested in Court with an unclear outcome at this time.]

AB: The official website: https://help.usajobs.gov/faq/application/process
Some more helpful guides: https://serc.si.edu/careers/tips-applying-federal-jobs
Social media says: Go to Reddit https://www.reddit.com/r/usajobs/comments/188te9h/tips_for_those_who_are_new_to_applying_through/ My advice: talk to someone in the department (or as close to it) as you can to make sure that you really and truly understand what the role is and what they need or are looking for in the candidate, so you can include keywords or emphasize those skills.

How much should I tailor my resume/CV for different job applications? How do I do that?

DS: It is vital to tailor your resume for different job applications. The first person who reviews job applications isn’t the person you’ll be working with, it’s an HR professional who is only screening for key words before giving finalists to the people who make the decision. If it isn’t extremely clear that you’re qualified for the position *to someone who is not an expert in your field at all*, you’re not going to get a lot of interviews. 

AB: I think this depends on how much time you have and how much you want the job.  Ideally, tailor every resume/CV for every job you apply to.  However, if the application is due on a very short timeline, you may want to get a general resume submitted rather than be late with a more tailored resume, especially if you are generally qualified.  Tailoring generally means to use the exact words or phrases they use in the position description wherever it is relevant, without being dishonest about your skills or experiences.

HK: The covering letter is often the place to really tailor your application. In the CV, make sure the requirements for the role are clear and if you have gaps, you can acknowledge those but bring in other skills you might have instead, or give an indication of how you might address those skill gaps.

How do cover letters work? What are they for, and why do they matter?

AB: Cover letters are a great place to give employers insight into a few things – your communication/writing skills, professionalism, and your passion or motivation for the role.  They can also be used to explain skills or contexts that are not included on your resume.  If cover letters are optional, I generally recommend to include one.  Pay particular attention to the prompts; sometimes the employer asks for the cover letter to address specific questions or themes. In general, I like cover letters to do three things – tell the reader why you are interested in this job, why you are the best candidate for the job, and what your motivations and passions are that led you to apply or seek this type of career path.

HK: Cover letters matter hugely from my perspective. Imagine screening 100s of CVs where many give the qualifications and skills you are looking for – the covering letter is the place where you get an insight into the applicant as an individual, your personality, and why you want that job with that organisation. A good covering letter (short, focused, interesting) makes the difference between being invited to interview and not.

A job I want to apply for lists required skills, degrees, and experience levels that I do not have. Should I apply?

DS: It depends. Many job ads list *required* skills and *ideal/preferred* skills. If you don’t have any of the required skills, it’s unlikely that you’re going to get that job, because you don’t really know how to do it. If you’re missing one, it’s probably fine, at least worth applying. 

EM:  I don’t know anyone who has every skill listed, but be confident in the skills you do have. It’s also ok to say what you don’t know, but are learning and developing additional skills.  Science does tend to lean heavily on the degree required component, but once you have a Master’s and experience it is much more open to what you can apply for in terms of positions. 

CM: It’s important to calibrate for your skill and experience level. You are wasting your time to apply to be the CEO of a large aquarium as your first job out of school. If you aren’t sure if a job is appropriate, chatting with your peers or mentors can also be helpful! 

A job I want to apply for lists 10 preferred skills they’d like their ideal applicant to have. I have two of those skills. Should I apply?

DS: There is likely no human alive who has all 10 of those preferred skills. If you have some of them, go for it. 

AB: Generally, yes you should apply if you are interested in the job AND you feel like the 8 skills you don’t have aren’t far above and beyond the realm of things you might like to or be able to do.  If the two skills you have are things like “positive attitude” and “excellent written and verbal communication skills” but the skills that you lack are specific analytical or field techniques, then you could still apply but maybe manage your expectations on being called in for an interview.

CM: As a rule of thumb, I advise my students to set a soft 50% limit. If there are 10 skills and you have five, apply if the job excites you. If you have four, but they’re all really strong skills for you and they’re key skills for the job, maybe apply. But unless you really like filling out applications, I probably wouldn’t make a habit of applying for things where I had less than 50-75% of the requirements met to at least a reasonable degree.

How do job interviews work? What should I expect, and how should I prepare? How can I stand out?

AB: There are currently a wide range of interview formats and questions.  In general, most employers start with a phone or video connection, maybe 30-60 minutes long.  They ask some behavioral questions (“tell me about yourself”, “tell me about a time you worked on a team”, “why are you interested in working here”) and may take some time to describe the position they are looking to fill, or their work unit.  They may ask you about specific skills you need to do the job.  They may ask if you have any questions for them.

You should prepare by researching the position and the organization, trying to find out as much as you can about what they do and what they are looking for.  You should also prepare by knowing yourself and being able to share qualities and strengths (and even perhaps weaknesses, but in a positive way) if asked. There are many guides on how to answer commonly asked behavioral questions available online.  If you can work with a career coach or mentor or colleague/classmate on one question in advance, it would be “Tell me about yourself” because almost every interview starts with some form of this question.

EM: Agree with my colleagues here, but wanted to offer one additional thing that always stands out for me.  Your involvement in the community of science that you are professionally pursuing.  What does that look like?  You have a membership in a professional organization, you attend and/or present at that professional society conference or have a student poster, you hold a position in that society, etc. 

CM: Have questions about the position and organization ready for when they give you a chance to ask questions! This is often a missed opportunity (“no, I don’t have any questions”) when it can be an opportunity to show your skills, the depth of your research, or your ideas about the position.

How far in advance of graduation should I start looking for jobs?

AB: Ideally, you should try to find out if your university has a career center.  If it does, try to make at least one appointment each semester to get some guidance on career exploration. You should determine when your target employers typically hire (you can do this by having informational interviews with alumni or professionals doing the jobs you might like to have).  This can vary greatly by sector – management consulting can make offers to interns and applicants as far as a year in advance, and many government agencies and NGO’s tend to hire only when there is approved funding and an immediate need. 

If a job is posted that interests you in the year you plan to graduate, you should consider applying.  There could be a lot of things that happen – for example, the employer lets you know that the timing isn’t right for the position you applied to but they liked your application and will let you know about a position they plan to post in the future.  Or the hiring process could get delayed for a number of reasons and they time becomes right for you to be considered.  And even if the timing isn’t right, people’s application materials (tailoring resumes, editing cover letters) tend to improve with repetition.  So if you start applying in the fall semester of your senior year, you will be better at turning in applications faster and during times of high stress such as final exams or finishing a research paper.

CM: This is all great advice, but I’d recommend running your materials past a mentor in the field you hope to work in, too–often career centers don’t have deep, discipline-specific knowledge about what’s normal or expected in your field.

After working in an entry-level job, what comes next? What skills or experience are needed for a mid-level or senior job? How do you become competitive for a leadership job? 

AB: In an entry level job, you will often be hired to use your technical skills or coordinate established programs.  As your career progresses, you will want to eventually be able to delegate some of those responsibilities to other team members.  This can be achieved by learning leadership and management skills. At first, it might seem easier to just do the task yourself rather than delegating (and potentially training) to someone else. To get promoted, many employers look for additional competency in areas such as budgeting, finance, supervising employees, and strategic thinking.  This might also require some additional training courses or professional development.  As you become the go-to expert in your technical skill or program implementation, build teams by delegating tasks and expanding your expertise, and perhaps develop new programs or tackle new challenges, you will become more competitive for next-level jobs.  Good luck to you in your career growth!